This interactive learning theories timeline highlights 50 key ideas or research papers related to nine key theories which can inform the design of blended and online learning in Higher Education.

My choice of these nine theories stems from a synthesis of three major books on learning theories: Schunk (2020), Lefrançois (2019) and Harasim (2017). You may find the first post in this learning theories series ‘What are learning theories and why are they important for learning design?’ useful when interacting with this timeline.

• Behaviourism
• All learning theories
• Cognitive Load Theory
• Cognitivism
• Connectivism
• Constructivism
• Motivation
• Multimedia Learning
• Online Collaborative Learning
• Social Cognitive Theory

1885

1885

Forgetting curve

Hermann Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve shows how quickly we forget information over time if we make no attempt to retain it. Cognitivism

1897

1897

Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory proposes that we learn behaviours through association where two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. Behaviourism

1913

1913

John B. Watson and Behaviourism

John B. Watson was the first to use the term ‘behaviourist’. A behaviourist approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours and states that all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment. Watson’s methodological behaviourism asserts the mind is tabula rasa (a blank slate) at birth. He is also notable for emphasising scientific and objective methods of investigation. Behaviourism

1913

Law of Effect and Law of Exercise

Edward Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect (that consequences, either rewards or punishments are a necessary condition for learning) and the Law of Exercise (that learned behaviour fades without practice and is strengthened with practice). He also showed that transfer depends on the similarity of the situations or domains. Behaviourism

1932

1932

Schema theory

FC Bartlett was the first person to write about schemas. Schema theory is a branch of cognitive science concerned with how the brain structures knowledge. A schema is an organised unit of knowledge for a subject or event. It is based on past experience and is accessed to guide current understanding or action. Cognitivism

1936

1936

Theory of cognitive development

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development reflects the fundamental ideas of constructivism. His theory was focussed on children, rather than all learners. Constructivism

1938

1938

Operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behaviour and a consequence. Behaviourism

1940

1940

Contiguous conditioning

Edwin Guthrie’s contiguity theory proposes that learning results from a pairing close in time to a response with a stimulus or situation. Behaviourism

1956

1956

Short Term Memory 7 +-2 chunks

George A. Miller theorised that most adults can store 7 plus or minus 2 items in their short-term memory because our memory only has a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored. Cognitivism

1960

1960

Constructivist theory

Jerome Bruner in his book ‘The Process of Education’ proposed that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge. Constructivist theory states that learning takes place in contexts and that learners form or construct much of what they learn and understand as a function of their experiences in situations. Constructivism

1961

1961

The Modelling effect

Bandura, Ross and Ross carried out the Bobo doll experiment. They found that children who had observed an adult behaving violently towards the Bobo doll were more likely to act aggressively towards it themselves when given the opportunity. These findings indicate that learning takes place not only when individuals are rewarded or punished for their own behaviour, but also when they observe another person exhibiting violent behaviour – a process called observational learning.
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning

1962

1962

Sociocultural theory

Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is a constructivist theory which emphasises the importance of social interactions and sociocultural factors for learning. Constructivism

1962

Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. The term ‘proximal’ refers to those skills that the learner is ‘close’ to mastering. Constructivism

1963

1963

Subsumption Theory

David Ausubel’s subsumption theory suggests a way of creating instructional material that helps learners organize their content in order to make it meaningful for transfer. He suggested the use of Advanced Organizers as tools that mentally help learners learn and retain knowledge, enabling them to combine new with already known information. Cognitivism

1964

1964

Theory of cognitive growth

Jerome Bruner’s theory of cognitive growth does not link changes in development with cognitive structures as Piaget did. Instead it highlights the various ways that children represent knowledge. Constructivism

1965

1965

Conditions of learning

Robert Gagné’s Conditions of Learning book is a foundational text in the field of Instructional Design. The conditions include internal conditions (prerequisite skills and cognitive processing requirements of the learner) and external conditions (environmental stimuli that support learners’ cognitive processes). He proposed five categories of learning outcomes and nine events of instruction. Cognitivism

1968

1968

Multi Store Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model of memory proposes that memory consists of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output. Cognitivism

1971

1971

Dual Coding Theory

Allan Paivio’s dual coding theory assumes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal objects/events (imagery), and the other specialized for dealing with language. Cognitivism

1972

1972

Levels of Processing

Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing theory focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last. Cognitivism

1972

Arousal theory

Donald Hebb’s arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

1972

Episodic and semantic memory

Endel Tulving proposed a distinction between episodic, semantic and procedural memory. Semantic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about the world. Procedural memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills. Cognitivism

1974

1974

Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch argued that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model is far too simple. They proposed the idea of Working Memory (WM) which is short-term memory. However, instead of all information going into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information. Cognitivism

1976

1976

Scaffolding

Wood, Bruner and Ross devised the term ‘scaffolding’. Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development. Support is phased out as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again independently. Constructivism

1977

1977

Self-efficacy

For Albert Bandura self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or perform actions at designated levels. In gauging their self-efficacy individuals assess their skills and capabilities to translate those skills into actions.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

1977

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory proposes that mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses and that behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning

1983

1983

Elaboration theory

Charles Reigeluth’s elaboration theory suggests instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning. It proposes seven major strategy components: (1) an elaborative sequence, (2) learning prerequisite sequences, (3) summary, (4) synthesis, (5) analogies, (6) cognitive strategies, and (7) learner control. Cognitivism

1983

Expectancy-Value Theory

Eccles and Wigfield’s expectancy-value theory suggests that behaviour is a function of how much one values a particular outcome and one’s expectation of obtaining that outcome as a result of performing a behaviour. Motivation and self-regulated learning

1985

1985

Attribution theory

Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behaviour. Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do, i.e., attribute causes to behaviour.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

1986

1986

Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises the role of the social environment in learning. By observing others (models), people acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs and attitudes.
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning

1986

Performance vs Mastery goals

Carol Dweck defines two main types of goals: Performance and Mastery goals. Mastery goals – also called learning goals correspond to the desire to learn, that is, to the desire to improve one’s knowledge and task-mastery. Performance goals correspond to the desire to promote a positive evaluation as compared to others.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

1988

1988

A Social Cognitive approach to motivation and personality

Dweck and Leggett’s paper ‘A Social Cognitive approach to motivation and personality’ examines the extent to which an individual believes change is possible, largely determines their ability to affect change.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

1988

Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning

John Sweller devised Cognitive Load Theory. In this early paper on Cognitive Load Theory, he proposes that the main distinguishing factor between experts and novices in problem-solving is domain-specific knowledge and that conventional problem-solving skills are not effective in acquiring schemata. Cognitive Load Theory

1990

1990

Adaptive Control of Thought

John Anderson’s Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) theory provides a model of cognitive architecture which attempts to explain how all components of the mind work together to produce coherent cognition. Cognitivism

1991

1991

Situated learning

Jean Lave’s situated learning theory proposes that thinking is situated (located) in physical and social contexts.
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning

1991

Communities of practice

Etienne Wenger summarises Communities of Practice (CoP) as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.” This learning that takes place is not necessarily intentional. Three components are required in order to be a CoP: (1) the domain, (2) the community, and (3) the practice.
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning

1992

1992

Self-worth theory

Martin V Covington’s self-worth theory of achievement motivation assumes that the highest human priority is the search for self-acceptance and that “one’s worth often comes to depend on the ability to achieve competitively”.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

1993

1993

Self-regulated learning

Barry Zimmerman defined self-regulated learning as the self-directive process through which learners transform their mental and physical abilities into task-related skills. This form of learning involves metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral subprocesses that are personally initiated to acquire knowledge and skill, such as goal setting, planning, learning strategies, self-reinforcement, self-recording, and self-instruction.
Motivation and self-regulated learning

2000

2000

Goal theory

Paul R Pintrich’s goal theory emphasises that different types of goals can influence behaviours in achievement situations. In his view, this motivation had three components, namely: “(a) value (including task value and achievement goal orientation), (b) expectancies (including control beliefs, self-efficacy beliefs, and expectancy for success), and (c) affect (focusing primarily on test anxiety and self esteem).” Motivation and self-regulated learning

2001

2001

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Richard Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning specifies five cognitive processes in multimedia learning: selecting relevant words from the presented text or narration, selecting relevant images from the presented graphics, organizing the selected words into a coherent verbal representation, organizing selected images into a coherent pictorial representation, and integrating the pictorial and verbal representations and prior knowledge. Multimedia

2004

2004

Connectivism

George Siemens (2004) and Stephen Downes (2005) proposed Connectivism as the collective connections between all the ‘nodes’ in a network that result in new forms of knowledge. Connectivism

2006

2006

Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media

The Cognitive‐Affective Theory of Learning with Media was devised by Roxana Moreno. It proposes that affective factors as well as individual learner characteristics impact multimedia learning. Multimedia

2008

2008

Self-determination theory

Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan’s self-determination theory links personality, human motivation, and optimal functioning. It posits that there are two main types of motivation—intrinsic and extrinsic—and that both are powerful forces in shaping who we are and how we behave. Motivation and self-regulated learning

2010

2010

ARCS model of motivation

John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivation is based upon the idea that there are four key elements in the learning process which can encourage and sustain learners’ motivation: Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction (ARCS).
Motivation and self-regulated learning

2011

2011

Cognitive Load Theory

Sweller, Ayres and Kalyuga consolidated all of the research on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) in this book. CLT states that because short-term memory is limited, learning experiences should be designed to reduce working memory ‘load’ in order to promote schema acquisition. Cognitive Load Theory

2012

2012

Online Collaborative Learning theory

Linda Harasim’s Online collaborative learning (OCL) theory, is a form of constructivist teaching that takes the form of instructor-led group learning online. In OCL, students are encouraged to collaboratively solve problems through discourse instead of memorizing correct answers. The teacher plays a crucial role as a facilitator as well as a member of the knowledge community under study. Online collaborative learning theory

2014

2014

Social agency theory of multimedia learning

Richard Mayer’s social agency theory of multimedia learning proposes that social cues may prime social responses in learners that lead to deeper cognitive processing during learning and hence better test performance. Multimedia

2016

2016

e-Learning and the Science of Instruction

Colvin-Clark and Mayer’s seminal book ‘e-Learning and the Science of Instruction’ exemplifies the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning theory and provides research-based guidelines on how best to present content with text, graphics, and audio as well as the conditions under which those guidelines are most effective. Multimedia

2016

Emotional design theory of learning with digital media

Plass and Kaplan’s proposed the Emotional design theory of learning with digital media to consider the impact of affect on learning. They argue that the emotional design of multimedia learning material can induce positive emotions in learners that in turn facilitate comprehension and transfer. Multimedia

2019

2019

Advances in Cognitive Load Theory

As Cognitive Load Theory developed, it has been used to generate a large number of instructional effects by reducing element interactivity, primarily associated with extraneous cognitive load. This book provides a summary of theoretical developments over recent years and the empirical consequences of that development. Cognitive Load Theory

2020

2020

Multimedia learning (Third edition)

The third edition of Richard Mayer’s ‘Multimedia Learning’ book. This edition covers the increase in the multimedia research base, adds three additonal principles for using multimedia and a greater focus on understanding the cognitive and motivational processes during learning that support meaningful learning. Multimedia

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References

Clark, D. (2020). 100 learning theorists. Retrieved 02 October 2020, from https://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com/2020/08/100-learning-theorists-2500-years-of.html

Culatta, R., & Kearsley, G. (n.d.). Learning Theories. InstructionalDesign.Org. Retrieved 25 July 2020, from www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/

Harasim, L. (2017). Learning Theory and Online Technologies (2nd edition). Routledge Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315716831

Hendrick, C., & Kirschner, P. A. (2020) . How Learning Happens: Seminal Works in Educational Psychology and What They Mean in Practice. Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429061523

Learning Theories and Models. (n.d.). Learning Theories. Retrieved 27 May 2020, from www.learning-theories.com/

Lefrançois, G. R. (2019). Theories of human learning: Mrs Gribbin’s cat (Seventh / Guy R. Lefrançois.). Cambridge University Press. www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/psychology/educational-psychology/theories-human-learning-mrs-gribbins-cat-7th-edition

Mcleod, S. (n.d.). Theories of Psychology. Simply Psychology. Retrieved 25 July 2020, from www.simplypsychology.org/theories.html

Schunk, D. H. (2020). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, 8th Edition. Pearson Education. www.pearson.com/us/higher-education/program/Schunk-Learning-Theories-An-Educational-Perspective-8th-Edition/PGM1996609.html

This is the first in a series of posts looking at learning theories and how they can inform the design of blended and online learning in Higher Education.

This opening post begins with some definitions of ‘learning’ and ‘learning theories’. I then highlight nine major learning theories. In subsequent posts, I will provide concise summaries and analyses of each theory. Following this, I present a table which compares the pedagogic properties of these theories. Next, I look at how learning theories can inform learning design and teaching practice. After that, I discuss how we can assess how useful a learning theory might be to inform our teaching practice. Finally, I consider if we need learning theories which specifically address digital technologies and online learning.

Some definitions of learning

There is no one definition of learning that is universally accepted by theorists, researchers and educators (Schunk, 2020). I find the following definitions most useful.

Ambrose et al. (2010) adapt Mayer (2002) to define learning as “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning”. For Brown et al. (2014), learning means “acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities.” Sweller et al. (2011) write that “If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”

Schunk (2020) writes that “learning is an enduring change in behaviour, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience”. He also adds that learning “involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours” and that “people learn cognitive, behavioural, linguistic, motor, and social skills”.

Lefrançois (2019) states that learning is “is an invisible, internal neurological process”. His view is that learning involves relatively permanent changes in disposition (the inclination to perform) and capability (knowledge or skills required to do something) as a result of experience. It is not always possible to directly observe changes in disposition and capability. Therefore to assess whether learning has occurred, some type of performance is required.

What are learning theories?

Harasim (2017), states that “a theory is an explanation for why something occurs or how it occurs”. She defines a learning theory as a theory which aims “to help us to understand both how knowledge is created and how people learn”. Lefrançois (2019) writes that a learning theory aims to “systematise and organise what is known about human learning”. He argues that a robust learning theory seeks to explain behaviour, to predict it and even to shape or change learner behaviours.

Many theorists contend that all learning theories fall within one of two groups based on epistemology. There are theories based on an objectivist epistemology (Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Connectivism) or a  constructivist epistemology (Constructivism and Online Collaborative Learning). Harasim (2017) argues that most theories fall into one of two categories: scientific (hypothesis-driven or experimental theories) and social or critical theories. These categories reflect the broader theoretical discourse of ‘hard’ science (STEM) versus ‘soft’ social science theories and quantitative versus qualitative scientific research. This divide is still present in educational discourse, but there are increasing efforts to lessen it.

Most learning theories have “an empirical element and a formalised way of study, analysis and conclusion” (Harasim, 2017). They establish a language and discourse which influence both educational research and practice. However, they have limitations, as learning is a complex phenomenon. Learning theories cannot provide complete and definitive answers to pedagogic questions, but they can improve our understanding of how people learn.

It is also worth noting that these theories did not evolve in a linear progression and that the newest theories do not supersede earlier ones: “the earliest theories continue to have a profound influence on current theories and research” (Lefrançois, 2019).

Nine key learning theories

Learning theories have a long history dating back to the Greeks. There are dozens of learning theories which seek to address how children and adults learn. See 100 learning theorists (Clark, 2020) and the comprehensive learning-theories.com website if you are interested in exploring this range of theories further.

Given this long history and the broad spectrum of learning theories, in this series of posts I will be focussing on what I consider to be the nine most relevant theories for designing blended and online learning for Higher Education:

• Behaviourism
• Cognitivism / Information Processing Theory
• Constructivism and social constructivism
• Social Cognitive Theory and social learning
• Theories of motivation and self-regulated learning
• Connectivism
• Online Collaborative Learning (OCL)
• Multimedia learning theories
• Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

My choice of these nine theories stems from a synthesis of three major books on learning theories: Schunk (2020), Lefrançois (2019) and Harasim (2017). Additional research sources were Bates (2019), Bower (2017), the Instructional Design.org website (Culatta & Kearsley, n.d.), the Plan B website (Clark, 2020) and the Simply Psychology website (Mcleod, n.d.).

A note on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

I have included Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) as a distinct theory even though it is a cognitivist theory. The reason for this choice is that there is a global CLT research community which has generated significant research which is worth exploring in more detail. Findings from CLT are also very relevant to the design of digital and online learning. Interestingly, two of the key learning theories sources I am using (Harasim, 2017) and (Lefrançois, 2019) make no reference at all to CLT. However, in the UK, Professor Dylan Wiliam has stated that he thinks CLT “is the single most important thing for teachers to know” (Wiliam, 2017).

What are the pedagogic properties of the major learning theories?

The table below is adapted from a table by Bower (2017), who based his on one devised by Conole et al. (2004). I have used a slightly different set of learning theories to Bower, and I have used additional properties. As Bower (2017) notes the ratings assigned are “coarse generalizations, and there may be quite a variety of possibilities along each polarity for each pedagogy, depending on how the teacher and students engage in the task.” He also points out that understanding these pedagogic properties can be useful for helping teachers to think through which technologies are most suitable for a given approach. For example “if the activity is to be completed socially rather than individually, then technologies with communication capabilities will most likely be required. If students are to produce a final product, then a technology that enables creative output will often be needed” (Bower, 2017).

How can learning theories inform learning design and teaching practice in Higher Education?

Schunk (2020) argues that the central purpose of learning theories is to improve teaching and that “effective teaching requires that we determine the best theoretical perspectives for the types of learning we deal with and their implications for teaching”. Harasim (2017) also takes the view that learning theories should not exist purely as high-level abstractions; theories are integral to educational practice. An understanding of learning theories can help educators to “reflect on their practice, improve upon, reshape and refine their work, and contribute to advancing the discipline” (Harasim, 2017). Theories also provide a link between educational research and practices providing “tools to organize and translate research findings into recommendations for educational practice” (Schunk, 2020). They can also “provide a basis for judging the accuracy and usefulness of beliefs” (Lefrançois, 2019).

Harasim (2017) makes the point that each learning theory is associated with particular pedagogies and learning technologies. Bates (2014) also argues that “the choice of or preference for one particular theoretical approach will have major implications for the way that technology is used to support teaching”. Schunk (2020) suggests that teachers need to ask the question ‘How does learning occur?’ and that whatever answer they come up with will inform lesson design, teaching practices and student activities. Ultimately, teachers use learning theories (consciously or not) and their related educational approaches and technologies to design, develop and deliver effective learning experiences.

The challenge of applying learning theories to educational practice

However, making use of learning theories is not always straightforward. Harasim (2017) cites Robert Calfee (2006), who argued that “educational psychology continues to struggle with the most appropriate relation to practice …It can come across as highly theoretical and detached from the practicalities of everyday teaching and learning”. Calfee also highlighted that “theoretical discussion is mainly focused on the teaching of children in the age range of 3-18 rather than on adults”. Schunk (2020) notes that historically there has been a disconnect between the domain of educational psychology and the practice of teaching. Most learning theorists have been psychologists carrying out experimental and lab-based research. Whereas most educators have been “primarily concerned with directly applying teaching methods to classrooms and learning environments”. The experience gained whilst teaching is still important because “theory without experience can be misguided because it may underestimate the effects of situational factors” (Schunk, 2020).

Learning theories and epistemology

Different theories of learning reflect diverse views and beliefs on the origin, nature and limits of knowledge. Bates (2014) states that “every teacher starts from some epistemological or theoretical position, even if it is not explicit, or even if the teacher is not fully aware of their beliefs”. Harasim (2017) also thinks that all teachers hold “some perspective on how to teach (and concomitantly, even if unconsciously, a perspective on how people learn)”. Therefore teachers may have different views as to how best to teach. For example, Pugsley (2011) sees the roles of educators “more as facilitators of learning, rather than imparters of knowledge”. In contrast, Hirsch (2016) and proponents of direct instruction argue that knowledge and curricula are fundamental to education.

Alongside the role of individual beliefs, Bates (2014) argues that each academic discipline has an agreed consensus about what constitutes valid knowledge within that subject domain. Harasim (2017) also highlights the role of disciplinary knowledge communities: “Deciding what to study when we seek to explain how people learn or deciding how to teach depends upon our disciplinary beliefs and perspectives”.

How can we assess how useful a learning theory might be to inform our pedagogic thinking and learning designs?

For Wheeler (2015), a robust theory “stands the test of time and continues to provide adequate, generalisable explanations.” Lefrançois (2019) makes the point that evaluating theories is not always about assessing whether they are right or wrong. Instead, he suggests that they can be assessed mainly by how useful they are to educational practice.

Bates (2014) notes that some form of empirical evidence supports some theories such as Behaviourism whereas other theories such as Connectivism do not have a strong basis in evidence. He also notes that why people base their teaching on a given theoretical approach “is as much about values and beliefs about knowledge as it is about the effectiveness of each theory” (Bates, 2014).

Harasim (2017) considers how we assess the value of learning theories to our teaching practice. She quotes Entwistle et al. (2010) who state that “It is not sufficient for a pedagogical theory simply to explain how people learn; it also has to provide clear indications about how to improve the quality and efficiency of learning”. Entwistle at al. (2010) suggest assessing how useful a learning theory might be to educational practice by asking:

• Is the theory derived from research data or observations in an educational context?
• Does the theory have direct practical implications for teaching and learning [in the particular context in which you are working]?
• How realistic and practical are the suggestions?
• Can the aspects identified as affecting learning be readily changed [by the teacher]?
• Is the theory presented in clear language which is understandable to teachers?
• Will the theory spark off new ideas about teaching?

Lefrançois (2019) also offers questions for evaluating ‘good’ learning theories. Many of his questions overlap with Entwistle al. (2010). Additional questions which I find helpful are:

• Can the theory be used for predicting as well as for explaining?
• Is the theory internally consistent?
• Are there any unverifiable assumptions?

I will be using these nine questions to evaluate each of the nine learning theories which I have selected for this series of blog posts.

Do we need learning theories which specifically address digital technologies and online learning?

The field of instructional design from 1945 onwards made use of behaviourist thinking with its focus on the systematic design of instruction based on concrete and discrete learning steps. Early learning theories did not specifically address digital technologies. However, behaviourist learning theory continued its development from the 1950s onwards alongside the invention and eventual widespread use of computers. Harasim (2017) describes the ‘mechanisation’ of the instructional process and recounts the rise of learning technologies such as “teaching machines, programmed instruction, computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and, eventually, courseware and massive open online courses (MOOCs)”.

The development of computers and the model of learners mentally processing information (just as computers process information) influenced cognitivist learning theories. Cognitive scientists developed educational technologies such as intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) and AI “in an attempt to mimic or replicate the human mind through computer programs” (Harasim, 2017). From this brief history, we can see that links between learning theories and technologies have existed over the last 75 years.

Harasim (2017) observes that in the field of online learning there is often an over-emphasis on training teachers in the use of specific tools and technologies, “but a theory-informed approach to transforming our educational practice remains elusive”. She critiques the view that new technologies have led to transformational pedagogies and notes that the most common practice amongst educators has been “to merely add technology onto traditional ways of teaching”.

Furthermore, she argues that the Internet has not led to a qualitative transformation of learning but merely quantitative changes such as improvements in speed of delivery and increases in scale to deliver education to higher numbers of people. She concludes that the field of online learning “lacks a theoretical framework to guide educational design, pedagogies and use of online technologies”. Wheeler (2015) suggests that educators should question whether older theories are still useful, “but we should also ask whether the newer theories add anything significant to our understanding of learning in new digital contexts.”

Connectivism is a learning theory focussed on technology and achieved some traction in the early 2000s. However, arguably it isn’t a fully formed learning theory, and it has very little to say about how people learn using technology. Online Collaborative Learning theory (Harasim 2012), is a more recent constructivist theory which focuses on the use of technology “to increase and improve communication between teacher and learners” (Bates, 2015).

I am not convinced that we need a learning theory which specifically addresses digital technologies as this seems to be a very deterministic way of thinking. For me, learning is fundamentally about people rather than technology. Many of the existing learning theories can inform designing for learning with digital technologies. As Harasim (2017) suggests, we need to reflect more on how these theories can inform our pedagogic approaches and teaching practices in the context of the opportunities afforded by online technologies.

Conclusion

Learning theories are critical because they “help us to understand both how knowledge is created and how people learn” Harasim (2017). While evaluating theories is not always about assessing whether they are right or wrong, Lefrançois (2019) suggests that they can be mainly assessed by how useful they are to educational practice. Teachers make use of learning theories (consciously or not) and their related pedagogic approaches and technologies to design, develop and deliver effective teaching and learning experiences. As we design for learning, we need to be aware that our theoretical starting points will inform our teaching practices, choice of learning technologies and the kinds of activities we provide to our students.

The next post in this series is an interactive learning theories timeline showing the historical evolution of the nine theories I am focussing on. This timeline highlights critical theoretical ideas and provides links to key books and research papers.

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References

Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching (1st ed.). Jossey-Bass. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UZE6fBn81_EC&printsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

Bates, T. (2014). Learning theories and online learning | Tony Bates. Retrieved 4 May 2020, from www.tonybates.ca/2014/07/29/learning-theories-and-online-learning/

Bates, T. (2015). 2.3 Objectivism and behaviourism. In Teaching in a Digital Age. Tony Bates Associates Ltd. https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/section-3-2-behaviourism/

Bates, T. (2015). 4.4 Online collaborative learning. In Teaching in a Digital Age. Tony Bates Associates Ltd. https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/chapter/6-5-online-collaborative-learning/

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